Colonial Williamsburg Digital Library

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CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION

Archaeological investigations were conducted by the Office of Excavation and Conservation of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (CWF) at the Nicolson House from January 7, 1982, until May 20, 1982 (Figure 1). Work was undertaken at this time in order to salvage archaeological evidence adjacent to the house prior to the waterproofing of the below-ground foundation walls. The Nicolson House property is a particularly valuable location for archaeological investigation, since it is one of the few areas in Williamsburg's Historic Area not disturbed by archaeological cross-trenching or earlier archaeological investigations. Unlike most of the properties in Colonial Williamsburg, the Nicolson House was privately owned during the days of the Foundation's intensive and widespread archaeological investigations. When the house was sold to the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation in 1964, only minor work was completed in and around the house before turning it into a private residence for employees.

The Nicolson House is shown on the Frenchman's Map of 1782 as having two outbuildings located north and east of the house, none of which have been archaeologically explored (Figures 2 & 3). The property can also be seen on the Desandrouins Map dating to 1782 (Figure 4). The archaeological effort at this time, however, centered on excavation directly around the house, since this was the area to be impacted by the waterproofing activities. The purpose of excavation was not only to remove occupation layers associated with the property, but also to define architectural components contemporary to the building's early years of existence. Since detailed information about the architectural history of the house is scanty, it was also important to trace any changes to the structure that would be discernible through archaeological excavation.

In the front yard, evidence of an early porch structure was sought, as well as fence lines defining property boundaries. Also of particular interest was the testing of the builder's trench for the house, in hope that it would yield artifactual evidence to further corroborate its presumed mid-18th century construction date. Remnants of walkways leading toward the property's outbuildings were expected, as well as traces of repair to the house foundation.

The results of this excavations would in no way present a full picture of the range of activity occurring on the Nicolson House property. At best, the limited scope of this project would provide only a glimpse of the property's history, and that mainly in the form of architectural information about the house. Answers 2 PHOTOGRAPH - Figure 1. Nicolson House, South Façade 3 MAP - Figure 2. Frenchman's Map, 1781 4 MAP - Figure 3. Detail of Frenchman's Map Showing Nicolson House 5 MAP - Figure 4. Desandrouins Map 6 to questions about spatial and behavioral organization on the property are not possible with this type of project.

Even with this limited range of work, however, it was felt important to use the full range of documentary sources available, in order to paint a full picture of the property's history and place it in the context of 18th century Williamsburg. This report will take an integrated approach to the Nicolson House, combining primary documentary sources, excavated data, and secondary source material (Beaudry 1980) to form an overall view of the site. Various documents and sources were used in researching the history of the Nicolson House and its occupants.

Primary sources included old newspapers, city and county records, merchants' account books, old maps, and photographs. Each of these sources furnished clues in revealing information useful in the interpretation of the site. For example, old maps and photographs detail information on the architectural remains to be examined. Changes in structural appearance (i.e., renovations, additions) are apparent in photographs, while maps indicate the presence and location of buildings and gardens. Fire insurance records are valuable sources of information, particularly concerning building dimensions and property values.

Also, this research relied heavily on legal documents, such as deed books, plat records, and wills, to reconstruct a property title chain. Also useful were documents dealing directly with persons associated with the property. Old diaries, journals, and correspondence are examples of this type of document. In the Nicolson House excavation, a journal kept by James Cogar during the house restoration in 1940 proved to be an invaluable aid in some areas of archaeological work (Cogar n.d.). Other sources of information are found in newspapers and merchants' account books. Through advertisements in the Virginia Gazette, it is known that Robert Nicolson was boarding tenants in his home. Examination of merchants' and craftsmen's account ledgers, such as that of Humphrey Harwood (Harwood n.d.), provided information on the occurrence of structural renovations or the relative social status of the property owner through the types of items which he purchased. Robert Nicolson's purchases of books and prints (Wenger 1982:1-2) imply that he was wealthy enough to afford items which were not considered necessities.

Secondary source materials were also included in this research. Historical and biographical journals are often unexpected sources of valuable information. These journals often publish portions of old diaries, genealogies, and church records, as well as other types of historical data. Prior research on the property had been conducted by Raymond Townsend in the 1960s. Some of the information from his unpublished manuscript on the 7 Nicolson House was used in compiling the house history of this report.

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CHAPTER 2.
HOUSE HISTORY

The Nicolson House is located at the east end of York Street, below the Capitol Building, on what had been part of a large tract of land owned by Virginia planter Mann Page. Upon his death in 1730, his son Mann Page II, decided to sell this land in order to settle his father's debts. This property was entailed, however, and it was 1747 before the General Assembly passed an act that allowed its sale. Shortly following this, Page entered into an agreement with Benjamin Waller, whereby Waller would survey the property, divide it into lots, and sell it. This land forming a suburb on the east side of town was surveyed and recorded in the York County records in April of 1749 (YCDB 5: 332-334). Residents of this area, wanting the privileges of property owners in town, petitioned the City of Williamsburg in 1756 for incorporation into the town's limits (Stephenson n.d.), with annexation soon following.

On May 23, 1750, James Spiers, cabinetmaker, purchased Lot 26 for a sum of 10. A clause included in the contract by Waller stated that a dwelling measuring at least 16' x 20' with a brick chimney had to be built on the property within three years. If, at the end of this period, there was no such structure, the lot would revert back to Waller (YCDB 5:363-367). Spiers most likely did not build on the property, for a year later, on May 17, 1751, he sold it to a young tailor named Robert Nicolson. For the same sum of 10, Nicolson bought the two one half acre lots and proceeded to build his home there.

These lots on the outskirts of town, less expensive than those within the city limits, were the setting for a neighborhood of craftsmen and young men just starting their careers. Robert Nicolson was 26 years old when he purchased the lots from Spiers, which would place his birth around 1725. He is not documented as owning any property in Williamsburg prior to this purchase and it is likely that he was just beginning his own tailoring business. Nicolson was married to Mary Waters and at the time of their purchase of Lot 26, they had two children. Together they had seven children in all, five of whom were born while they were living in the house on Francis Street (Goodwin 1941:148, 149, 151). Of their children, Robert, Jr. (b. 1753) became a noted surgeon during the Revolutionary War; George, (b. 1758) became mayor of Richmond, and Thomas, (b. 1757?) became the publisher of the Virginia Gazette and General Advertiser. There were also three other sons, William, (b. 1749), John, (b. 1751), Andrew (b. 1763) and one daughter, Rebecca (b. 1766).

In order to conform to Waller's building clause, Nicolson most likely built his frame house sometime between 1751 and 1753. It 9 was a fairly small, unpretentious two story building, measuring approximately 24' x 26'. It was then similar in plan to the present day reconstruction of the Orrell House, also located in Williamsburg, with a side hall opening onto two ground floor rooms. To help augment his income from the tailoring shop located across the street, Nicolson took in lodgers. That he was boarding lodgers as early as 1755, is documented by this advertisement in the March 28, 1755 edition of the Virginia Gazette:

THE Subscriber, living at Mr. Nicolson's in Williamsburg, proposes to teach Gentlemen and Ladies to play on the Organ, Harpsichord, or Spinett; and to instruct those Gentlemen that play on other Instruments, so as to enable them to play in concert. Upon haveing Encouragement I will fix in any part of the Country.
Cuthbert Ogle

Unfortunately for Ogle, he was dead within a month. Robert Nicolson, his former landlord, became the executor of his estate (Townsend n.d.). Although there is no record of his having boarders in the years immediately following Ogle's death, he most likely was accomodating tenants in his home during the late 1750s and 1760s.

The next reference found to Nicolson's boarding practice is seen when he advertised in the Virginia Gazette of September 12, 1766 for lodgers.

WILLIAMSBURG, SEPTEMBER 12, 1766
GENTLEMEN who attend
the General Courts and Assembly may be accommodated with genteel LODGINGS, have BREAKFAST and good STABLING for their HORSES, by applying to

ROBERT NICOLSON

The cost of "Bed and Breakfast" was 3 a month. It is likely by the time of this advertisement that the western addition had been built onto the house. With five children between the ages of a newborn and fifteen, Robert Nicolson and his wife would have hardly been prepared to house the family and lodgers in the original house. The addition of two bays on the western end of the structure doubled its size, giving the house its present dimensions of 28' NS x 46' EW. The double pile central passage 10 structure has remained virtually unchanged since the eighteenth century, with only the east side and back subsequently altered by porch additions. The account book of Humphrey Harwood, a Williamsburg carpenter, for the period 1786-1794 showed that he made some repairs and built additions to Nicolson's house and shop. The plan of the construction sequence of the Nicolson House has been prepared by the Colonial Williamsburg Department of Architectural Research (Figure 5).

Like most landlords, Nicolson endured his share of troubles with tenants. A highly publicized disagreement between boarder James Mercer, a Burgess for the County of Hampshire, and Dr. Lee, a Williamsburg resident, took place in 1767. This dispute almost ended in a duel, and various accounts of the episode were detailed in the Virginia Gazette following the incident. This trouble obviously did not deter Mercer from boarding at Nicolson's, as seen in the Virginia Gazette of November 4, 1773:

Williamsburg, November 4, 1773

I SHALL return here the 20th instant: In the interim, Mr. Robert Nicolson will receive any payments that any person may incline to make him for

JAMES MERCER

Nicolson, having finally tired of the annoyance of paying tenants, or reaching a point where it was no longer a financial necessity, announced his decision to stop taking in boarders in 1777:

WILLIAMSBURG, April 11, 1777

THE Subscriber begs Leave to inform Gentlemen who for these several Years past used to put up at his House, that he has now entirely discontinued taking in lodgers.

ROBERT NICOLSON

(Dixon and Hunter, 1777)

In 1773, Robert Nicolson moved his business into the center of town, buying a shop on Duke of Gloucester Street. Besides tailoring services, Nicolson's shop served as a subsidiary post office and a general store. His son, William, set up business in his father's old shop across from the Nicolson House.

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FLOOR PLAN - Figure 5. Construction Sequence of Nicolson House

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Robert Nicolson's prestige within the community seems to have grown along with his business. In December, 1774, he was appointed to serve on a pre-Revolutionary citizens committee which included, among others, Peyton Randolph, George Wythe, and Thomas Everard (Anonymous 1896: 250). During the Revolutionary War, Nicolson employed soldiers in his shop to make uniforms for the state (PSW 1778).

Nicolson continued to purchase land throughout the last half of the 18th century; and the tax books of 1797 show Nicolson as owning 135 ½ acres of land (YCTB 1797). In 1783, Nicolson owned one free male, five adult slaves, and seven slaves under the age of sixteen (Anonymous 1914:138). This compares with other Williamsburg notables, such as George Wythe, shown in the same tax list as having fourteen slaves, and Benjamin Waller, with thirteen. Nicolson also owned two horses, two cows, and a two wheeled vehicle called a chair.

Apparently, Nicolson resided in the house on "Woodpecker Street" for the remainder of his life. Fire insurance records of 1796 state

"I . . . Robert Nicolson residing at Williamsburg . . . declare for assurance . . . against fire on Buildings . . . My wooden Buildings on Woodpecker Street at Williamsburg now occupied by myself situated between the lott of Saml Goodson and that of Mrs. Craig . . ." (MAS 112).

When Robert Nicolson died in 1797, his estate passed into the hands of his surviving children. In the following year Dr. Robert Nicolson, Jr. died, but the property remained in the Nicolson estate until it was sold to John Power in 1803 (WLT 40:4). John Power died soon thereafter, leaving the property to his son, John Power, Jr. When the son was killed in the Battle of Hampton on June 25, 1813 (Flournoy 1968:256), the property remained solely in the hands of John Power's other children.

The house remained within the Power family, with the next recorded mention of the property not coming until 1841. In that year, James T. Bowery claimed to have agreed with Allan and Ann Chapman and other heirs of the Power estate, upon a thirteen year lease to the house. Effective January 1, 1841, Bowery would rent the house on Woodpecker Street for the sum of $100 a year. However, on January 2, 1841, Allan Chapman and Richard Roe forcibly evicted Bowery from the property, using "staves, sticks, and knives" (Southall). No reason was given for the cause of the eviction. Bowery filed suit against the Chapmans for damages; in retaliation, the Chapmans filed a countersuit to remove Bowery 13 from the property. John Power's heirs eventually won their suit and Bowery was forced to vacate the property.

In 1846, John Slaughter made a down payment on the York Street property. Until his final payment in 1851, the property continued to be taxed to the Power estate (WLT 40:14). Slaughter had apparently lived in the house since the time of his purchase, but in 1854 decided to sell or rent the property. He placed the following advertisement in the Virginia Gazette (January 5, 1854):

"The undersigned being desirous of removing to the country offers for sale or for rent the ensuing year, two houses and lots located on Woodpecker Street. One is a new house recently finished, suitable for a small family, there being a large room and a passage below and two comfortable rooms above. The other in which he now resides is a large and commodious building containing ten rooms all in thorough repair. Both of these dwellings have good lots and all the necessary outhouse attached to render them comfortable. There is a well of good water in the yard convenient to both dwellings.

The location is but short distance from the Female Academy, now in a flourishing condition, and the larger dwelling is admirably suited for a boarding house.

There is a storehouse located between the above described dwellings which the subscriber will either sell or rent.

For terms, apply to him in the city of Williamsburg.

JOHN SLAUGHTER

Slaughter must have rented the house almost immediately, since the following announcement appeared in the January 26, 1854 edition of the Virginia Gazette:

Attention!!

William Lindsey would respectfully announce to CARPENTERS and BUILDERS of Williamsburg and surrounding country, that he has opened a SASH, BLIND, and DOOR MANUFACTORY, about THE CENTRE OF "WOODPECKER" STREET, in the house formerly occupied by Mr. John Slaughter, where he will 14 be prepared to carry on the above business in all its branches. All orders received by him will be promptly attended to and neatly executed.

The smaller dwelling became Abraham Hoffheimer and Brothers grocery and dry goods store (Martin 1854).

No records exist for the Nicolson House property during the Civil War period. Many houses on York Street were vacated during the three year Union occupation of the town, and consequently fell into disrepair or were damaged by marauding soldiers. For example, Isaac Smith and his wife, who rented the property immediately west of the Nicolson House, repaired damages to that house in lieu of paying rent. In 1865, the Nicolson buildings were valued at a sum of $1700, (a depreciation of $700 from the year 1854), so it seems very likely that the property suffered during the Civil War.

The last quarter of the 19th century was witness to a lengthy and complicated court battle involving the Nicolson House. For some time, John Slaughter had been experiencing financial difficulties which he was not able to alleviate. To ease his monetary problems, he was granted a stay of execution by the court that allowed him to postpone payment of his debts. Before this stay expired, in December of 1868, he deeded his house and property to Robert H. Armistead as trustee to secure a bond to Lavinia E. Lawson. The bond was for a debt of $800 plus interest from March 1858 owed to Lawson, and for liabilities to other individuals incurred by Slaughter. Meanwhile, in 1867, William Lively brought a suit against Slaughter for an uncollected debt owed to Charles Lively since July, 1849. The court ordered Slaughter to pay the debt, with interest, but no settlement was made.

Slaughter died in intestate in 1869 or 1870, and following the death of Slaughter's widow around 1873, Armistead sold the Nicolson House and property to Lavinia Lawson. William Lively then complained Lawson had not paid the full value for the property, and that for the restitution of his debt, the property should be resold. Lawson, who had settled some of Slaughter's other debts, resigned her claims to the property. Lively versus Slaughter went to court in 1877; and consequently, when Slaughter's estate was evaluated, it was found to be worth less than his accrued debts. It was ordered that the house be sold at public auction by Armistead and R. L. Henley to defray court costs and the debts (CW/CJCCOB 2:284). After a five year delay by Armistead and Henley, the property was sold in 1883 by Court appointed commissioner H. B. Warren to John W. Lawson (CW/JCCCH 64). Lawson was granted a special warranty deed to the property on September 16, 1885.

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In 1894, John Lawson sold the Nicolson property to Bascom Dey, who already owned the lot to the east of the house (CWDB 2:595-596). Sometime prior to 1923, Dey died and his widow sold the property to Luther Lindsley and his wife Pattie Love Jones Lindsley (CWDB 10:65). Pattie Lindsley died before her spouse, leaving her share of the property to her mother, Pattie Bugg Jones, who later deeded it to Luther Lindsley.

In August, 1940, James L. Cogar purchased the Nicolson House property from Lindsley (CWDB 18:319-20). Photographs taken of the house around the time of Cogar's purchase show it to be dilapidated and overgrown with vines (Figure 6). He soon thereafter began to restore the house to its 18th-century appearance, with his goal to make the house livable while changing as little as possible of the original structure. Progress was charted through a diary that Cogar kept during the renovation.

Cogar lived in the house until 1964, when he sold the property to the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (CWDB 36:311-312). It is now serving as housing for company employees, and is presently the residence of Mr. and Mrs. Richard Schreiber. Mr. Schreiber is the Vice President of Products Division.

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PHOTOGRAPH - Figure 6. Nicolson House, Early 20th Century

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CHAPTER 3.
FIELD METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Archaeological work began on January 7, 1982 with an excavation crew led by John Hamant of the Office of Excavation and Conservation. On March 10, a crew of three additional excavators began work in the front yard of the house. Since the only area to be impacted by the waterproofing was directly adjacent to the house, the work plan was comprised of placing excavation units abutting the foundation walls. Excavation was to be conducted along every side of the building, except the east, which had been disturbed by the installation of an oil tank. No base line was established; instead, excavation units were measured directly off of the house foundation. These units extended a distance of ten feet out from the foundation on the south, north and west sides of the house. In the backyard, however, to the east of the existing bulkhead entrance, excavation was only extended six feet from the foundation. The placement of these units and their square designations are shown in Figure 7.

Because of time limitations due to the Maintenance Department's waterproofing schedule, the uppermost layers of fill were shovel-shaved. While shoveling, excavators watched for the appearance of archaeological features cutting through the soil strata. The fill of all such features was removed with trowels. Below the twentieth century strata, the soil was excavated using trowels. Layer changes were determined by color and/or texture changes in the soil, and those which appeared to be undisturbed 18th-century fill were screened through ¼" wire mesh. Features were mapped in plan and profile, sectioned, and photographed. Excavation continued until sterile subsoil was reached in all areas. To insure the least possible amount of water damage to the house during the excavation, all above ground gutters were the last areas to be excavated. The strata under these drains were assigned separate provenience numbers.

Recording of data took the form of descriptive notes on each layer and feature, with each layer having been assigned a unique numerical designation. These excavation register numbers were composed of a number which stood for the excavation unit in question, followed by a letter designation for the feature or layer. If, for example, the topsoil was the first strata removed from the excavation unit ER3212, then it would be designated as ER3212A. The next layer removed would be ER3212B, and so on. Features, such as post-holes or trash pits, were also assigned letter designations. If the number of soil layers and features in a particular unit exceeded twenty-six, then a new second number would be assigned to the excavation unit and the process would continue, beginning with Layer or Feature A.

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FLOOR-PLAN - Figure 7. Plan of 1982 Excavation Units

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CHAPTER 4.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESULTS

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS

The advent of scientific or problem-oriented archaeology has resulted in a search for patterns within the archaeological record. Patterned behavior affects the composition, form, and distribution of materials contained within the archaeological record (Binford 1968; South 1977; Redman 1978; Lewis 1976). Consequently, the discovery of patterned variation within archaeological assemblages can allow the archaeologist to formulate inferences about human behavior. Examples of this approach include Stanley South's delineations of the Carolina Artifact Pattern, the Brunswick Refuse Disposal Pattern, and the Frontier Pattern (1977), Singleton's Slave Artifact Pattern (1980) and Moore's patterning on coastal barrier island plantations (1981).

Application of this approach was difficult, however, if not impossible, at the Nicolson House due to several factors. First the limited scope of excavation did not allow for interpretation areas. Second, and perhaps more importantly, was the amount of soil disturbance around the Nicolson House foundation. Urban archaeological sites have been noted for their complex stratigraphy and extensive amounts of disturbance brought abut as a consequence of the intensive land use common to urban areas (Rothschild and Rockman 1982; Salwen 1982; Rubertone 1982). Disturbances at the Nicolson House took the forms of foundation repair, numerous utility lines, and landscaping alterations. As a result, a large amount of soil disturbance and redeposition such as these, known as site formation processes, have been discussed by Schiffer (1983: 677):

"as a result of formation processes, the archaeological record is a transformed or distorted view of artifacts as they once participated in a behavioral system."

Artifacts on urban sites are rarely recovered from their primary contexts and, therefore, patterned behavior or site organization cannot be inferred from them. The formation processes common on urban sites have created new artifact patterns, totally unrelated to past behavior (Schiffer 1983:678).

Because of the lack of undisturbed areas at the Nicolson House, this report has focused primarily on architectural features revealed through archaeological excavation. Only one artifact assemblage could be definitely associated with any one household at the Nicolson House, and most of the deposits could 53 not even be positively associated with activities occurring on the property. The most outstanding example of this was the thick layer of humus located throughout the area of excavation (Feature 13). This layer had been brought onto the site sometime in the 20th century, probably as fill.

Although the excavation revealed a good deal of previously unknown architectural information about the Nicolson House, the nature of the excavation and the amount of disturbance around the house precluded any general statements about activities occurring on the property. Much of the disturbance, ironically enough, was associated with previous attempts at halting the flow of water into the basement. Although interesting, these waterproofing attempts almost completely obliterated all evidence of the original builder's trench of the house, hindering efforts of date the house construction through artifacts contained within its fill.

Although the amount of ground disturbance activity in the back of the Nicolson House has not been determined, there has been no previous archaeological examination of the property by the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. This is a situation rarely met with in the Historic Area since archaeological excavations have been conducted almost continuously since the restoration began in the late 1920s. This property would provide the archaeologist an opportunity to look at an undisturbed Williamsburg domestic site. The Nicolson House has functioned primarily as a domestic residence for most of its existence, although it served briefly as a door and window factory in the mid-19th century. Excavation in the backyard should reveal structural remains related to work areas or buildings associated with this manufacturing complex. Its presence was also seen in the large quantities of window glass recovered in the backyard excavation units.

Eighteenth century insurance records document a kitchen in the backyard and Virginia Gazette advertisements indicate a stable on the property, most likely to the east of the house. The Frenchman's Map (1781) shows that during the Revolutionary War period, an outbuilding, probably a kitchen, stood off of the northeast corner of the house, while another building was located along the southeastern property bounds. These structural remains, plus indications of other common outbuildings, such as dairies, privies, and smokehouses, are sure to exist on the property. The large amount of domestic garbage recovered from the east boundary ditch seems to suggest that the building seen on the Frenchman's Map was a kitchen. Further work holds the promise of revealing changing patterns of trash disposal over time, changing property boundaries as revealed by fencelines and changing areas of yard use as seen in patterned sheet refuse, and changing areas of yard use. The property would also provide an ideal opportunity to study how the area's rural to urban transformation 54 during the 18th century was reflected in changing patterns of site use.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anonymous
1914 - A List of Taxable Articles in the City of Williamsburg Taken by Robert Nicolson for the Year 1783 Under the Revenue Act. William and Mary College Quarterly, 23(1):133-42 [Kraus Reprint, New :York 1966].

Anonymous
1896 - William and Mary College Quarterly 5 (1):250. [Kraus Reprint, New York 1966].

Austin, John
1983 - Personal communication.

Beaudry, Mary
1980 - "Or What Else You Please to Call It" Folk Semantic Domains in Early Virginia. Unpublished, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Brown University.

Binford, Lewis
1968 - Archaeological Perspectives. New Perspectives in Archaeology, Edited by S. R. and L. R. Binford, pp 5-32. Aldine, Chicago.

Blake, Sylvia Dugger
1971 - Flow Blue. Wallace Homestead, Des Moines, Iowa.

Chamberlayne, G. G., Ed.
1898 - The Vestry Book and Register of Bristol Parish, Virginia 1720-1789. Privately printed, Richmond.

Cogar, James
n.d. - Diary of Nicolson House restoration. Unpublished manuscript on file at the Architectural Research Department Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.

CWDB (City of Williamsburg Deed Book)
n.d. -
Book 2:168-169, Appendix 133.
Book 2:595-596.
Book 10, Appendix 37.
Book 18:319-320.
Book 36:311-312.

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CWF (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Photograph File)
n.d. - Photo Number N-39-33-NH. On file at the Architectural Research Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.

CW/JCCCH City of Williamsburg and James City County Court House
n.d. - City of Williamsburg and James City County Court House File Box 64, Appendix 32, Loose papers.

CW/CJCCOB City of Williamsburg and County of James City Chancery
n.d. - Number 2:284, Appendix 27.

Dixon and Hunter, Editors
1777 - Virginia Gazette. April 11, 1777.

Flournoy, H. W.
1968 - Calendar of Virginia State Papers and other Manuscripts from January 1, 1808 to December 31, 1835; Preserved in the Capitol, At Richmond, P. 10. Kraus Reprint, New York.

Frenchman's
1781 - Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginia, 1782. Map on file, Research Department Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.

Garner, F. H. and Michael Archer
1972 - English Delftware. Faber and Faber, London.

Godden, Geoffrey
1971 - An Illustrated Guide to Mason's Patent Ironstone China. Praeger, Washington.

Goodwin, Rutherfoord
1940 - A Brief and True Report Concerning Williamsburg in Virginia. Dietz and Son, Richmond.

1941 - The Records of Bruton Parish Church. Dietz, Richmond.

Harwood, Humphrey
n.d. - Account Book, 1786-1794. Unpublished manuscript on file at Research Department, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.

Hunter, Editor
1755 - Virginia Gazette. March 28, 1755.

Knight, James M.
1982 - Interview with James M. Knight by Andrea Foster; December 9, 1982; Tape I, Side A.

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Lewis, Kenneth E.
1976 - Camden; A Frontier Town. Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, Anthropological Studies 2. The University of South Carolina, Columbia.

Lewis, Kenneth E. & Helen W. Haskell
1981 - The Middleton Place Privy: A Study of Discard Behavior and the Archaeological Record. Research Manuscript Series No. 174. Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina.

Miller, George
1980 - Classification and Economic Scaling of 19th Century Ceramics. Historical Archaeology. 14:1-40.

Moore, Sue Mullins
1981 - The Antebellum Barrier Island Plantation: In Search of an Archaeological Pattern. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Florida. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.

MAS (Mutual Assurance Society)
n.d. Policy 112. Manuscript on file at Department of Architectural Research, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.

Noël Hume, Ivor
1969 - A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America. Alfred Knopf, New York.

1975 - Historical Archaeology. W. W. Norton, New York.

Pittman, William, comp.
1984 - Laboratory Manual. Office of Excavation and Conservation. Manuscript on file, Office of Archaeological Excavation, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, VA.

PSW (Public Store, Williamsburg)
n.d. - Day Book, June 1, 1778 - November 13, 1778.

Redman, Charles
1978 - Multivariate Artifact Analysis: A Basis for Multidimensional Interpretations. Social Archaeology: Beyond Subsistence and Dating, edited by Charles Redman, M.J. Berman, E. V. Curtin, W. T. Langhorne, Jr., N. M. Versaggi, J. C. Wanser, PP. 159-92. Academic, New York.

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Roth, Rodris
1961 - Tea Drinking in 18th-Century America: Its Etiquette and Equipage. United States National Museum Bulletin 225. Paper 14:61-91.

Rothschild, Nan A. and Diana diZerega Rockman
1982 - Method in Urban Archaeology: The Stadt Huys Block. Archaeology of Urban America: The Search for Pattern and Process, edited by Roy Dickens, PP. 3-18. Academic, New York.

Rubertone, Patricia E.
1982 - Urban Land Use and Artifact Deposition: An Archaeological Study of Change in Providence, Rhode Island. Archaeology of Urban America; The Search for Pattern and Process, edited by Roy S. Dickens, PP. 117-41. Academic, New York.

Salwen, Bert
1982 - Foreword. Archaeology of Urban America; The Search for Pattern and Process, edited by Roy S. Dickens, PP. 13-17. Academic, New York.

Schiffer, Michael B.
1972 - Archaeological Context and Systemic Context. American Antiquity 37:156-65.

Singleton, Theresa
1980 - The Archaeology of Afro-American Slavery in Coastal Georgia: A Regional Perception of Slave Household and Community Patterns. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Florida. University Microfilms, Florida.

Smith, Sally A.
1982 - Chesapeake Dairies: A Prototypical Outbuilding Study of Southampton County, Virginia. Typescript on file at Colonial Williamsburg Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, VA.

South, Stanley
1977 - Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology. Academic, New York.

Southall, George
n.d. - George Southall Papers, Legal Cases and Estates. James City County. Folder 129. Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary.

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Stephenson, Mary
n.d. - Nicolson House, Unpublished manuscript on file at the Foundation Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, VA.

Townsend, Raymond
n.d. - Miscellaneous notes assembled by Raymond Townsend on the Robert Nicolson House. Manuscript on file in the Research Department, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.

Truro Parish
1974 - Minutes of the Vestry, Truro Parish, Virginia, 1732-1785. VA: Pohick Church, Lorton.

Wenger, Mark R.
n.d. - Draft copy of the Nicolson House Architectural Report. Unpublished manuscript on file at the Department of Architectural Research, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.

Wise, Cara
1976 - Date and Status in Eighteenth Century Delaware: An Archaeologist's view. Transactions of the Delaware Academy of Science, 1974 and 1975. Delaware Academy of Science, Newark, Delaware.

WLT (Williamsburg Land Tax)
n.d.
Appendix 40:4. Appendix 40:14.

YCDB (York County Records, Deed Book)
Deed Book 5, 1741-1754:332-334.
Deed Book 5, 1741-1754:363-367.

YCTB (York County Tax Books)
1797 York County Tax Book

60

APPENDIX 1
FEATURE SHEET

Feature 1 House Builder's Trench

• ER3218C
• ER3224P
• ER3225V?
• ER3221Z
• ER3203H

Feature 2 Brick Seating of Front Steps

• ER3225A

Feature 3 Back Porch

• ER3201K

Feature 4 Brick Walkway

• ER3201J

Feature 5 Shell Walkway

• ER3203D

Feature 6 Trench for Earliest Back Porch

• ER3203G

Feature 7 Bulkhead Entrance Fill

• ER3204P
• ER3204S
• ER3205E
• ER3204Y
• ER3204X

Feature 8 Front Yard Renovation Fill

• ER3212V
• ER3214L
• ER3217K

Feature 9 Backyard Renovation Debris

• ER3221R
• 61
• ER322E

Feature 10 Possible Shed or Fence

• ER3221V/X/Y/Z
• ER3221N/P

Feature 11 Outbuilding

• ER3204N
• ER3208M
• ER3204R
• ER3208N

Feature 12 Brick and Tile Drain

• ER3206J
• ER3208L
• ER3210J

Feature 13 Secondary Fill Layer

• ER3204B
• ER3206D
• ER3208E
• ER3208F
• ER3210G
• ER3210H

Feature 14 Fence Line 1

• ER3208R
• ER3211E
• ER3208J/K
• ER3206F/G
• ER3206H
• ER3210T/V

Feature 15 Fence Line II

• ER3210R/S
• ER3210X/Y
• ER3206R/S
• ER3208S/T
• ER3213F/G
• ER3215C
• ER3217Z/3218A
• Repair/Replacement ER3210N/P
• " ER3210W
• Repair/Replacement ER3213C/D/E
• " ER3214S/T
• " ER3214S/T
• " ER3217Y

62

Feature 16 Drainage Ditch

• ER3208Z
• ER3207C
• ER3211H
• ER3222N
• ER3223R

Feature 17-20 Trash Pits

• ER3210Z
• ER3211A
• ER3206W
• ER3206Z

Feature 21 Agricultural Trenches

• ER3225S
• ER3222R
• ER3218S
• ER3218N
• ER3220E
• ER3220C
• ER3218V
• ER3218R
• ER3218P
• ER3220D
• ER3220F

63 64